• Active voice is used when the subject of the sentence performs the action. This is a more direct and preferred style of writing in most cases.  For example:  “Anthony drove while Toni searched for the house.” The opposite of active voice  is passive voice is which is when the subject of the sentence receives the action. For example: “The car was driven by Anthony.” Passive voice is often overused. When possible, try to use active voice.
• An Allusion is an indirect reference to something (usually a literary text, although it can be other things commonly known, such as plays, songs, historical events) with which the reader is supposed to be familiar.
• One form of allusion is parody.  Parody is An exaggerated imitation of a serious work for humorous purposes. It borrows words or phrases from an original, and pokes fun at it. This is also a form of allusion, since it is referencing a previous text, event, etc. The Simpsons often parody Shakespeare plays. Saturday Night Live also parodies famous persons and events. Do not confuse with satire.
• Satire is A work that reveals a critical attitude toward some element of life to a humorous effect. It targets
• human vices and follies, or social institutions and conventions. Good satire usually has three layers: serious
• on the surface; humorous when you discover that it is satire instead of reality; and serious when you discern
• the underlying point of the author.
• Sarcasm is A generally bitter comment that is ironically or satirically worded. However, not all satire and
• irony are sarcastic. It is the bitter, mocking tone that separates sarcasm from mere verbal irony or satire. 
• .
• An Anecdote is A brief recounting of a relevant episode. Anecdotes are often inserted into fictional or non fictional texts as a way of developing a point or injecting humor.
• Antecedent is The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP language exam occasionally
• asks for the antecedent of a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group of sentences. 
• For example,  “If I could command the wealth of all the world by lifting my finger, I would not pay such a price for it.” An AP question might read: “What is the antecedent for “it”?
• 3. allegory- the device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories, for example, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence.
• 4. alliteration- the practice of beginning several consecutive words with the same sound, e.g., The twisting trout twinkled below. 
• 6. anadiplosis- a figure of repetition that occurs when the last word or terms in one sentence, clause, or phrase is/are repeated at or very near the beginning of the next sentence, clause, or phrase. Fear leads to anger; anger leads to hate; hate leads to suffering.—Yoda  *Related to conduplicatio.
• 7. ambiguity- allows for two or more simultaneous interpretations of a word, phrase, action, or situation, all of which can be supported by the context of a work.
• Classicism is Art or literature characterized by a realistic view of people and the world; sticks to traditional
• themes and structures (see romanticism).
• Romanticism is Art or literature characterized by an idealistic, perhaps unrealistic view of people and the
• world, and an emphasis on nature. Does not rely on traditional themes and structures like classicism does.
• Comic relief is when a humorous scene is inserted into a serious story, in order to lighten the mood
• somewhat. The “gatekeeper scene” in Macbeth is an example of comic relief.
• Diction is Word choice, particularly as an element of style. Different types of words have significant effects
• on meaning. An essay written in academic diction would be much less colorful, but perhaps more precise
• than street slang. You should be able to describe an author’s diction. You SHOULD NOT write in your
• thesis, “The author uses diction…”. This is essentially saying, “The author uses words to write.” 
• Instead, describe the type of diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain).
• Denotation is The literal, explicit meaning of a word, without its connotations.
• Connotation describes the associations suggested by a word. (as opposed to the dictionary definition (denotation.) Connotations is the Implied meaning rather than literal meaning. (For example, “policeman,” “cop,” and “The Man” all denote the same literal meaning of police officer, but each has a different connotation.)
• Literal language is writing that makes complete sense when you take it at face value. “Figurative Language” is the opposite:  writing that is not meant to be taken literally.
• Figurative Language is the opposite of “Literal Language.”
• Jargon is The insider termanology, including informal slang, or diction used by a group which practices a similar profession or activity. Lawyers speak using particular jargon, as do soccer players.
• Vernacular is 1. the Language or dialect of a particular country. 2. the Language or dialect of a regional
• clan or group.  or 3. Plain everyday speech.
• Didactic is A term used to describe work that teaches a specific lesson or moral or
• provides a model of correct behavior or thinking.  They could be fiction, nonfiction or even poetry. 
• Colloquial is an Ordinary or familiar type of communication. A “colloquialism” is a common or
• familiar type of saying, similar to an adage or an aphorism.
• An Adage is A folk saying with a lesson. For example: “A rolling stone gathers no moss.”
•  Its Similar to aphorism and colloquialism.
• An Aphorism is A terse statement which expresses a general truth or moral principle. An aphorism
• can be a memorable summation of the author’s point. Ben Franklin wrote many of these in Poor
• Richard’s Almanac, such as “God helps them that help themselves,” and “A watched pot never
• boils.”
• An allegory is A story, fictional or non fictional, in which characters, things, and events represent
• qualities or concepts. The interaction of these characters, things, and events is meant to reveal an
• abstraction or a truth. Animal Farm, by George Orwell, is an allegory.
• An Idiom is a common, often used expression that doesn’t make sense if you take it literally. for example- “I got chewed out by my coach.”
• An ellipsis is the deliberate omission of a word or phrase from prose done for effect by the author. “The whole day, rain, torrents of rain.” The term ellipsis is related to ellipse, which is the three periods used to show omitted text in a quotation.
• An analogy is a comparison of one pair of variables to a parallel set of variables. When
• a writer uses an analogy, he or she argues that the relationship between the first pair of variables is
• the same as the relationship between the second pair of variables. For example:  “America is to the world as the hippo is to the jungle.” Similes and metaphors are sometimes also analogies.
• Hyperbole is exaggeration. For example:  “My mother will kill me if I am late.”
• A metaphor makes an implied comparison, not using “like,” as,” or other such words. “My feet
• are popsicles.” An extended metaphor is when the metaphor is continued later in the written
• work. If I continued to call my feet “my popsicles” in later paragraphs, that would be an extended
• metaphor.
• A kenning is a specific type of metaphor in Old English that uses imagery 
•  A particularly elaborate extended metaphor is called using conceit.
• A Euphemism is A more agreeable or less offensive substitute for generally unpleasant words or concepts.
• Sometimes they are used for political correctness. “Physically challenged,” in place of “crippled.” Sometimes a euphemism is used to exaggerate correctness to add humor. “Vertically challenged” in place
• of “short.”
• Metonymy is Replacing an actual word or idea, with a related word or concept. For example: “Relations
• between London and Washington have been strained,” does not literally mean relations between
• the two cities, but between the leaders of The United States and England.
•  Metonymy is often used with body parts: “I could not understand his tongue,” means his language or his speech.
• Synecdoche is A kind of metonymy when a whole is represented by naming one of its
• parts, or vice versa. For example: “The cattle rancher owned 500 head.” or, “Check out my new wheels.”
• Simile: Using words such as “like” or “as” to make a direct comparison between two very
• different things. “My feet are so cold they feel like popsicles.”
• Synesthesia is a description involving a “crossing of the senses.” Examples: “A purplish scent
• filled the room.” “I was deafened by his brightly-colored clothing.”
• Personification: Giving human-like qualities to something that is not human. “The tired old truck
• groaned as it inched up the hill.”
• Foreshadowing is When an author gives hints about what will occur later in a story.
• Genre is The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose,
• poetry, and drama. Genres can be subdivided as well, (for example, poetry can be classified into lyric, dramatic,
• narrative, etc.). 
• The AP Language exam deals primarily with the following genres: autobiography,
• biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing.
• Gothic is Writing characterized by gloom, mystery, fear and/or death. 
• Imagery uses words that create a picture in the reader’s mind. Usually this involves the five senses.  Authors often use imagery in conjunction with metaphors, similes, or figures of speech.
• An Invective is A long, emotionally violent, attack using strong, abusive language.
• Irony is When the opposite of what you expect to happen does.
• Verbal irony is When you say something and mean the opposite/something different. For example,
• if your gym teacher wants you to run a mile in eight minutes or faster, but calls it a “walk in the
• park” it would be verbal irony. 
• If your voice tone is bitter, it’s verbal irony is called sarcasm. 
• Dramatic irony is When the audience of a drama, play, movie, etc. knows something that the
• character doesn’t and would be surprised to find out. For example, in many horror movies, we (the
• audience) know who the killer is, which the victim-to-be has no idea who is doing the slaying.
• Sometimes the character trusts the killer completely when (ironically) he/she shouldn’t.
• Situational irony is Found in the plot (or story line) of a book, story, or movie. Sometimes it
• makes you laugh because it’s funny how things turn out. (For example, Johnny spent two hours
• planning on sneaking into the movie theater and missed the movie. When he finally did manage to
• sneak inside he found out that kids were admitted free that day).
• Juxtaposition is Placing things side by side for the purposes of comparison. Authors often use juxtaposition
• of ideas or examples in order to make a point. (For example, an author my juxtapose the average day of a
• typical American with that of someone in the third world in order to make a point of social commentary).
• Motif is a recurring idea in a piece of literature. In To Kill a Mockingbird, the idea that “you never really
• understand another person until you consider things from his or her point of view” is a motif, because the
• idea is brought up several times over the course of the novel.
• Oxymoron is When apparently contradictory terms are grouped together and suggest a paradox is “wise
• fool,” “eloquent silence,” “jumbo shrimp.” 
• Pacing is The speed or tempo of an author’s writing. Writers can use a variety of devices (syntax,
• polysyndeton, anaphora, meter) to change the pacing of their words. An author’s pacing can be fast,
• sluggish, stabbing, vibrato, staccato, measured, etc.
• Paradox is A seemingly contradictory situation which is actually true. For example:  “You can’t get a job without experience, and you can’t get experience without getting a job.”
• Parallelism is (Also known as parallel structure or balanced sentences.) It is Sentence construction which
• places equal grammatical constructions near each other, or repeats identical grammatical patterns.
• Parallelism is used to add emphasis, organization, or sometimes pacing to writing. For example:  “Cinderella swept the floor, dusted the mantle, and beat the rugs.”
• Anaphora is Repetition of a word, phrase, or clause at the beginning of two or more sentences or
• clauses in a row. This is a deliberate form of repetition and helps make the writer’s point more
• coherent. “I came, I saw, I conquered.”
• Chiasmus is When the same words are used twice in succession, but the second time, the order of
• the words is reversed. “Fair is foul and foul is fair.” “When the going gets tough, the tough get
• going.” Also called antimetabole.
• Antithesis is Two opposite or contrasting words, phrases, or clauses, or even ideas, with parallel
• structure. For example: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times”
• Zeugma or (Syllepsis) is When a single word governs or modifies two or more other words, and the
• meaning of the first word must change for each of the other words it governs or modifies.  For example:  “The
• butler killed the lights, and then the mistress.” or,  “I quickly dressed myself and the salad.”
• When parenthesis set off an idea from the rest of the sentence we call it a “parenthetical idea.” It is almost
• considered an aside or a whisper, and should only be used very sparingly for effect. For example:  “In a short time (and the time is getting shorter by the gallon) America will be out of oil.”